Foundations

1. Introduction
2. Gross Anatomy of the Eye
3. Simple Anatomy of the Retina
   • Overview
   • Central and peripheral retina compared
   • Muller Glial Cells
   • Foveal Structure
   • Macula Lutea
   • Blood supply to the retina
   • Degenerative diseases of the human retina
   • References
4. How the Retina Works. (7.5 MB pdf file) by Helga Kolb
   

1. Photoreceptors
   • Light microscopy and ultrastructure of rods and cones
   • Outer segment generation
   • Visual pigments and visual transduction
   • Phagocytosis of outer segments by pigment epithelium
   • Different types of cones
   • Morphology of the S-cones
   • Densities of rods and cones in the human retina
   • Rods and night vision
   • Ultrastructure of rod and cone synaptic endings
   • Inter-photoreceptor contacts at gap junctions
   • References
2. Outer plexiform layer
   • Techniques that have been used to understand neural pathways in the retina
   • Bipolar cells
   • Horizontal cells
   • ON and OFF pathways of the retina are initiated at the photoreceptor to bipolar contacts
   • References
3. S-Potentials and Horizontal cells. by Ido Perlman, Helga Kolb and Ralph Nelson
   • History
   • Morphology and Circuitry
   • Physiological Types
   • Rod and cone contributions and passive electrical models
   • Ionic conductances
   • Gap junctions and spatial characteristics
   • Feedback
   • Modulation of physiology
   • Functional Roles
   • References
4. Inner plexiform layer
   • Bipolar cells, amacrine cells and ganglion cells interact in the IPL
   • Ultrastructure of the neuropil
   • Different morphological types of amacrine and ganglion cells
   • Stratification of amacrine and ganglion cells in relationship to bipolar cell axons
   • References
5. Morphology and Circuitry of Ganglion cells
   • General morphology
   • Alpha and beta ganglion cell types of mammalian retinas
   • Non alpha and non beta ganglion cell types in mammalian retinas
   • Convergence of photoreceptors and second order neurons to cat retinal ganglion cells
   • Identity of amacrine cell types inputting cat alpha and beta ganglion cells
   • Primate ganglion cells
   • Rabbit ganglion cells
   • References
6. Visual Responses of Ganglion cells. By Ralph Nelson
   • Overview
   • History of Electrical Recordings
   • ON and OFF Responses
   • Receptive field
   • Centers and Surrounds
   • Contrast Sensitivity functions and Difference of Gaussians
   • X and Y receptive fields
   • Directionally Selective Ganglion Cells
   • Modeling Directional Selectivity
   • Pharmacology of Directional Selectivity
   • Color and Spectral Responses
   • Color and Receptive Fields
   • Tonic and phasic ganglion cells of primate retina
   • Color properties of primate ganglion cells
   • Rod signals in retinal ganglion cells
   • Rod signals are delayed
   • Detection of light quanta by retinal ganglion cells
   • Receptive field alterations with rod vision
   • Spatial distribution of ganglion cell fields
   • Ganglion cell mosaics and spatial resolution
   • Correlated firing of neighboring ganglion cells
   • Neurotransmitter receptors and synaptic currents
   • Ganglion cells that are involved in the circadian clock
   • References
7. Glial cells of the retina
   • Muller Cells
   • Astrocytes
   • Microglial cells
   • References

1. Circuitry for Rod Signals
   • Rods
   • Rod bipolar cells
   • Rod amacrine cells
   • AII amacrine cells
   • A17 amacrine cells
   • A18 amacrine cells
     
   • Convergence in the rod pathway
   • Summary
   • References
2. Cone pathways through the retina
   • Circuitry for cone signals
   • ON and OFF pathways
     
   • Center-surround receptive fields
   • References
3. Roles of Amacrine Cells
   • General characteristics
   • Amacrine cell circuitry as revealed by EM
   • A2: a narrow-field, cone pathway amacrine cell
   • AII: a bistratified rod amacrine cell
   • A8: a bistratified cone amacrine cell
   • A13: a small-field amacrine cell of the cone system
   • A17: the wide-field reciprocal rod amacrine cell
   • A19 and A20: ON-OFF wide-field amacrine cells
   • A22: a putative substance P containing ON-OFF neuron of the cone system
   • A18: the dopaminergic amacrine cell
   • ACh amacrines: mirror symmetric starburst cells
   • DAPI-3 cells in the rabbit retina
   • Midget system amacrine cell
   • References
4. AII Amacrine Cells. By Mahnoosh Farsaii and Victoria P. Connaughton
   • Introduction
   • Morphology and Distribution
   • Synaptic connectivity
   • Physiological responses
   • Role in duplex vision
   • References
5. Midget Pathways of the primate retina underly resolution
   • General characteristics
   • Visual acuity starts with cone spacing and midget circuitry
   • Cone to midget bipolar cell connections
   • Midget ganglion cells
     
   • Circuits underlying red and green color opponency in the human retina
   • References
6. S-cone pathways
   • Blue cones
   • S-cone bipolar cell
     
   • S-cone horizontal cell
   • S-cone ganglion cell
     
   • Hypothetical wiring diagrams of the S-cone pathways
   • References
7. Feedback Loops
   • General characteristics
   • Feedback in the outer retina
   • Interplexiform cells
     
   • Dopaminergic cells in mammals
   • Centrifugal fibers in mammalian retinas
   • References

1. General characteristics
2. The neurotransmitter of neurons of the vertical pathways through the retina is glutamate
3. Gamma aminobutyric acid
   
4. Glycine
5. Dopamine is present in amacrine cells in the mammalian retina
6. Acetylcholine
7. Serotonin
8. Adenosine may be a retinal neurotransmitter
9. Substance P occurs in an amacrine type and a ganglion cell type
10. Other neuropeptides
11. NADPH-diaphorase staining and the possibility that there are nitric oxide containing neurons in the retina
12. Amacrine cell populations and mosaics arrangements are revealed by neurotransmitter immunocytochemistry
13. References

1. General overview
2. Histological techniques
3. Glutamate receptors
4. Ionotropic glutamate receptors
5. Metabotropic glutamate receptors
6. Glutamate transporters and transporter-like receptors
7. Localization of glutamate receptors types in the retina
8. Retinal neurons expressing ionotropic glutamate receptors
9. Retinal neurons expressing metabotropic glutamate receptors
10. Retinal neurons expressing glutamate transporters
11. Summary and conclusions
12. References

1. Introduction
2. Different glutamate receptor types
3. ON and OFF stratification
4. Electrical properties
5. Behavioral and clinical implications
6. Visual processing under pharmacological blockade
7. Summary and conclusions
8. References

Development of cell types and synaptic connections in the retina. by Josh Morgan and Rachel Wong

1. Introduction
2. Sequence of circuit assembly in the vertebrate retina
3. Structural assembly
4. Development of pre- and postsynaptic processes
5. Functional assembly
6. Development of synaptic connectivity
7. Spontaneous activity
8. Light responses
9. Summary

Formation of Early Retinal Circuits in the Inner Plexiform Layer. by Marla Feller

1. Introduction
2. Neurotransmitters and Early Retinal Development
3. Spontaneously Active Synaptic Circuits
4. Retinal Waves
5. Chemical Synaptic Transmission
6. Gap Junctions
7. Role of Activity in Formation of ON and OFF Circuitry
8. References

Color Vision. by Peter Gouras

1. Introduction
2. The Evolution of Vision
3. Color Vision
4. Chromatic versus Achromatic Contrast
5. Divariant Mammalian Color Vision
6. Simultaneous Contrast
7. Trivariant Human Color Vision
8. Hue, Saturation and Brightness
9. The Hering Theory of Color Vision
10. Hering Red-Green Channel in the Retina
11. Hering Blue-Yellow Channel in the Retina
12. Hering White-Black Channel in the Retina
13. Retinal Interneurons
14. The Role of Phasic Ganglion Cells
15. The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
16. Color Vision in Visual Cortex
17. Color Vision beyond Striate Cortex
18. Color and Form
19. References

GABAc Receptors. by Haohua Qian

1. Properties of GABA receptors
2. GABAc responses on retinal neurons
3. Pharmacology of GABAc receptors
4. Molecular biology of GABAc receptors
5. Function of GABAc receptors in the retina
6. References

Psychophysics of Vision. by Michael Kalloniatis and Charles Luu

1. Principles of Psychophysics
   • Introduction
   • Measurement of Light
   • Psychophysical Measurements
   • Adaptative Psychophysical Methods
   • References
2. Visual Acuity
   • Introduction
   • Types of acuity tasks
   • Visual acuity limitations
   • Raleigh's criteria
   • Dimension of the retinal mosaic
   • Factors affecting visual acuities
   • Contrast Sensitivity
   • Spatial Summation
   • References
3. Temporal Resolution
   • Temporal summation
   • Critical flicker frequency (CFF)
   • Temporal contrast sensitivity
   • References
4. Light and Dark Adaptation
   • Dark adaptation
   • Factors affecting dark adaptation
   • Light adaptation
   • References
5. The Perception of Colour
   • Overview
   • Colour specification
   • discrimination
   • Theories of Colour Vision
   • Colour Vision Deficiencies
   • Using the CIE diagram to develop diagnostic colour vision test
   • References
6. The Perception of Space
   • Retinal disparity
   • The Horopter
   • Aniseikonia
   • References
7. The Perception of Depth
   • Monocular Cues
   • Binocular Cues
   • Clinical test to measure stereopsis
   • References

Primary Visual Cortex. by Matthew Schmolesky

1. Introduction
2. Historical Perspective
3. Basic Anatomy
4. Neuronal Constituents
5. The Cortical Layers
6. Cytochrome Oxidase Labeling
7. Feedforward and Feedback Pathways
8. V1 Cortical Columns
9. Retinotopic maps in V1
10. Binocularity/Stereopsis
    
11. Illusory Contour Perception
12. Understanding Vision
13. References

Regeneration in the Goldfish Visual System. by Sam Nona

1. Overview
2. General features of the goldfish visual system
3. Astrocytes in the retina
4. Astrocytes in the optic nerve
5. Astrocytes in the brain
6. Axon regeneration in injured goldfish optic nerve
7. Glial environment of axons in mammalian CNS
8. Glial environment of axons in mammalian PNS
9. Glial environment of axons in goldfish optic nerve
10. The optic nerve as a model for axon regeneration studies
11. Events that follow a crush to goldfish optic nerve
12. Fish optic nerve vs rat optic nerve
13. Regeneration in goldfish optic nerve distal to lesion
14. Myelination of regenerating goldfish optic nerve axons in the lesion by Schwann cells
15. Source of Schwann cells in regenerating goldfish optic nerve
16. Thoughts on delayed remyelination in goldfish optic nerve
17. Conclusions
18. References

Regeneration in the visual system of adult mammals. by Yves Sauve and Frederic Gaillard

1. Introduction
2. Reconstruction of Primary Visual Pathways
3. Requirements for recovery of function following lesions of CNS pathways
4. Promoting the survival of axotomized RGCs
5. Promoting the growth of axotomized RGC axons
6. Guidance of regenerating RGC axons towards their appropriate target
7. Arborization and synapse formation by RGC axons regenerating into their CNS targets
8. Generation of action potentials in target neurons
9. Restoration of retinotopy
10. Preservation of local and downstream circuitry
11. Evidence for some level of recovery of function in the PN-bridged retinofugal pathways
12. Visual Function Assessment
13. References

Fetal tissue allografts in the central visual system of rodents. by Frederic Gaillard and Yves Sauve

1. Introduction
2. The visual system of rodents: a brief overview
3. Standard strategy for intracerebral transplantation: Graft morphology
4. Neurons within the transplant can be driven by host eye visual stimulation
5. Do grafts receive extensive afferents?
6. Can grafts send afferents to host targets?
7. Restoration of visual behavior
8. References

The Electroretinogram: ERG. by Ido Perlman

1. Historical view
2. The electrical basis of ERG recordings
3. The origin of the major ERG waves
4. Additional minor components of the ERG
5. Summary of the ERG components
6. Factors affecting the ERG
7. Analysis of the ERG
8. References

Clinical Electrophysiology. by Donnell Creel

1. Introduction
2. The electroretinogram ERG
3. ERG recording electrodes
4. Light stimulation for ERGs
5. ERG recording methods
6. Oscillatory potentials OPs
7. ERGs in retinitis pigmentosa-like diseases
8. The ERG in cone dystrophies
9. ERGS in retinal vascular disease
10. Foreign bodies and trauma
11. Drug toxicities
12. Systemic disorders and the ERG
13. The multifocal ERG mfERG
14. The electrooculogram EOG
15. References

Cellular Remodeling in Mammalian Retina Induced by Retinal Detachment. by Steven K. Fisher, Geoffrey P. Lewis, Kenneth A. Linberg, Edward Barawid, and Mark R. Verardo

1. Introduction
2. Levels of Remodeling
3. The Details of Cellular Remodeling after Detachment and Reattachment
4. Protein expression in cone photoreceptors after detachment: analyzing the surviving cone photoreceptor array
5. Remodeling of photoreceptors after reattachment
6. Remodeling of second and third order neurons
7. Remodeling of Ganglion Cells
8. Glial cell Remodeling
9. Retinal Remodeling after Detachment and Reattachment: an overview
10. Future challenges
11. References
    Facts and figures concerning the Human Retina
12. Facts and figures concerning the human retina